Synergies and trade-offs in the energy-water-food security nexus: Implications for household livelihood resilience in South Africa

Synergies and trade-offs within the energy, water, and food (EWF) security nexus at the household level can be both direct and indirect, often manifesting as subconscious consequences. However, it remains unclear how these trade-offs and synergies shape the livelihood resilience of rural households. The study sought to evaluate the impact of EWF security nexus trade-offs and synergies on rural livelihood resilience, using the Amathole district of South Africa as a case study. A cross-sectional research survey of 655 households was conducted. The perception-based min-max normalisation, livelihood resilience Index and propensity score matching were used to analyse the EWF security nexus trade-offs and synergy index, livelihood resilience, and the impact of trade-offs and synergy on household livelihood resilience, respectively. Most households experienced more trade-offs rather than synergies within the EWF security nexus (33.1 %). Additionally, a significant proportion of households demonstrated low livelihood resilience (42.7 %). Furthermore, experiencing higher synergies than trade-offs in the EWF security nexus is associated with a 28 % increase in livelihood resilience. In conclusion, households in the Amathole district face more trade-offs than synergies within the EWF security nexus, and experiencing greater synergies improves livelihood resilience. The study recommends supporting households with synergistic interventions such as modern energy access, reduced energy costs, water-saving techniques, and transportation infrastructure to enhance their capacity to address food, energy and water security challenges.